The Doctrine and Covenants-REL C325

Religion, Race, and Ethnicity

I agree with the ideas of Edward Telles that Brazil and the United States are alike in terms of racial systems that are rooted in the ideology of white supremacy. Two nations had stuck to ratio ideologies developed from distinct historical and political forces even after they got independence. Brazil and the United States were thoroughly invaded by the colonizer, and the cultural patterns that the whites tried to involve the Brazilians were quite similar to what was happening in the North America (Telles, pp. 13). There was ethnographic and historical evidence that revealed the two countries suffered slavery in which most slaves came from weaker indigenous populations who were Africans. Telles argued that racism is beyond skin color relations, and I think the historical slavery established by European colonists is a good example of the forces that contributed to racial inequalities. Most of the enslaved people were Africans, and the author exposed that Brazil imported many blacks slaves compared to North America (Telles, pp. 1).

Historical slavery in the U.S and Brazil led to hostility and then Civil War between blacks and whites. Slavery also disrupted race relations, and Telles argued that the white supremacy dominated the political system in both countries. The white supremacy limited racial democracy, and it prevented the Africans from participating in political activities. Telles mentioned that political forces failed to implement race-based affirmative action and in the end led to exclusiveness (Telles, pp. 2). The author put emphasized on how race mixture and segregation are part of Brazilian racial ideology. He refers to race mixture as mesticagem, and he argued that it caused fear and anxiety among the Brazilians. Like in Brazil, the United States faced race mixture, and segregation that resulted to distinct classification systems developed from particular economic classes. Overall, Telles helped us understand skin color relation is not the only aspect that defines racial inequalities and ethnicity. Historical, political, and cultural forces have also contributed to the spread of racism and ethnicity in Brazil and the United States up to date. (Telles, pp. 4).

My essay will explore how religion develops in the United States as a result of social factors. I will illustrate by points using examples of social factors that led to religious formations. The social factors which will help readers understand the themes in my essay ranges from slavery, indigenous African religions, political, commercialism, and racial blackness. I will examine how trans-Atlantic slavery in the United States played a significant role in the emergence of African Americans’ religious systems. These same religious systems will help us find out the evolution of racial mixture and ethnic identity among blacks. Religion contributes a lot to race formation, and we will see how the slaves and poor blacks were linked to groups that develop into the race. Max Weber emphasized this and defined “race as something that creates a group only when it is subjectively perceived as a common trait” (Kiddy, pp. 224). He made us understand that there is a great relationship between religion and social identity.

According to Johnson, black religion began as early as during the trans-Atlantic slavery, and despite most African Americans been affected by slavery, it helped them create formal Christian denominations. Slaves passed through social oppression but, on the other side linked them to groups with similar religious beliefs (Jordan, pp. 5). The blacks got attracted to religious networks as a mean of securing freedom from slavery, which had disrupted family ties and disorientated most of their social activities. Most slaves struggled to preserve their religion, and “they were replaced with a single racial identity ‘the Negro’ (Berg, pp. 19). Missionary groups such as Baptists and Methodists played a key role in spreading the black religion. They involved African Americans to take part in evangelical work, and it attracted many blacks in Christianity. Black Christians who lacked formal education were allowed to learn theology and promoted Christianity in black-dominated regions in North America (Johnson, pp. 4).

Black Christianization in America faced challenges such as Civil War because apart from Christianity, other religions developed and condemned slavery. We had groups of freed African Muslims who came up with different ideologies that differed from Christianity. Another religious denomination that was manifested through slavery was an indigenous African religion known as Orisha devotion. It was not similar to Christianity because it did not believe in the salvation myth and the ideology of monotheism (Johnson, pp. 3). But what made it more side with Christianity is it condemned slavery severely. Religion remained as one of the social factors that encouraged interaction across racial boundaries. Johnson argued that social interaction and social unity pursued commercial and political activities that led to urbanization (Johnson, pp. 12). I think Johnson sided with Emile Durkheim’s argument that religion is linked to social solidarity.

Overall, the rapid expansion of urban populations fostered change in the black religion and led to the irruption of religious movements among African Americans. The black churches developed new thoughts that shaped African American religious life, and we saw other new religions emerging, such as black Judaism. Religious movements made black theology to start pressuring critical attention on racial consciousness (Kiddy, pp. 222) and politics. Religious agencies got into the politics of racial powers and put efforts to defend racial democracy. African American Christianity left a legacy in the United States for pursuing racial equality and Black Nationalism. The African Americans got their racial identity because of their commitment to fighting for black ethnicity, social justice, and liberation (Selka, pp. 103).

Works Cited

Berg Herbert. “African Americans Islam-Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion.” (2015).

Johnson A. Sylvester. “African Americans and Religion-Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion.” (2015).

Jordan P. Ryan. “Race and Religion in the United States- Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion.” (2017).

Kiddy, Elizabeth W. “Ethnic and racial identity in the brotherhoods of the Rosary of Minas Gerais, 1700-1830.” The Americas 56.2 (1999): 221-252.

Selka, Stephen. “The Sisterhood of Boa Morte in Brazil: Harmonious mixture, black resistance, and the politics of religious practice.” The Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Anthropology 13.1 (2008): 79-114.

Telles, Edward Eric. Race in another America: The significance of skin color in Brazil. Princeton University Press, 2004.